"The Country We Lost": 9 Myths about the Russian Empire

2024 Author: Malcolm Clapton | [email protected]. Last modified: 2023-12-17 03:44

Catherine II was not shown Potemkin villages, "General Frost" did not win the Patriotic War, and the peoples of the empire did not live so happily.

The mythologization of the past is a widespread phenomenon. For example, in Russia, some people tend to idealize or demonize the Soviet past, while others - the times of the empire. The reality, however, usually turns out to be somewhat more complicated than an exaggerated black-and-white picture. We analyze the most popular misconceptions about the Russian Empire.

1. The reforms of Peter I had only favorable consequences

Peter I became Korb Y-G., Zhelyabuzhsky I., Matveev A. The birth of an empire. M. 1997 the first Russian emperor. He is rightfully called the creator of the "window to Europe" and is called the title "Great". Through the efforts of Peter, Russia entered the Baltic and Black Seas, created an army and navy according to the European model. Significant transformations have taken place in all spheres of society: from public service to dressing.

It is generally accepted to consider Peter's reforms to be unambiguously positive, but one must understand that fundamental changes had a great price.

Despite the fact that the first Russian emperor was considered a progressive monarch, he was a man of his time. And it was pretty cruel. Therefore, he often carried out his transformations by violent means.

Here you can also recall the forced shaving of the boyars' beards, which was, in general, offensive for the representatives of the highest Russian nobility. Do not forget about the harsh laws that Peter introduced in relation to his subjects - for example, about punishments for disapproving statements about the king. Also, the first Russian emperor actually officially allowed the sale of people - serfs.

However, it is obvious that people - both serfs and free - were rather a resource for Peter. So, many peasants died during the rapid construction of cities, including St. Petersburg, canals, fortresses, where they were driven in thousands for heavy forced labor.

Peter hastily Korb Y-G., Zhelyabuzhsky I., Matveev A. The birth of an empire. M. 1997 reshaped the country according to the European model, which he considered a landmark, not without reason. But at the same time, he did not tolerate any objections, did not reckon with the established norms and practically instilled new ones by force.

For example, the son of the emperor became one of the victims of Peter's modernization. Peter condemned his elder son Alexei for betrayal, who became close to people dissatisfied with the reforms, and fled abroad, hoping to eventually take his father's place. He died in prison under unexplained circumstances.

For all this, many historians, including monarchical ones, later reproached Peter.

2. In Crimea, Catherine II was shown Potemkin villages

Another historical myth is associated with the name of another great ruler of the Russian Empire, Catherine II.

In 1787, the empress took an unprecedented step for her time: with her companions and foreign ambassadors, she went to the Crimea, recently conquered by Russian troops. And this despite the fact that not so long ago cannons and muskets died down, and memories of the Pugachev uprising of 1773-1775 were still fresh in my memory.

As a result, unpleasant rumors spread. Allegedly, during a voyage, Prince Grigory Potemkin, the conqueror of the Crimea and the Empress's favorite, put on a demonstration show for Catherine II with feigned wealthy villages and contented residents. That is, everything that the empress saw in the Crimea was allegedly fake and erected for her arrival.

But this had little to do with reality. Rumors about fake villages Potemkin's ill-wishers began to spread long before Catherine's trip. They were actively picked up by foreign guests. And they even wrote about it in diplomatic reports

Naturally empty steppes … were inhabited by people by Potemkin's orders, villages were visible at a great distance, but they were painted on screens; people and herds were driven to appear for this occasion in order to give the autocrat a profitable idea of the wealth of this country … Everywhere were seen shops with beautiful silver items and expensive jewelry, but the shops were the same and were transported from one overnight stay to another."

John-Albert Ehrenstrom Swedish Ambassador

Potemkin really abundantly decorated the places where the high delegation passed: he hung up illuminations, held parades, launched fireworks. It was quite in the spirit of official visits of that time, and the prince himself did not hide the fact of decoration.

At the same time, in dozens of other descriptions of Catherine's journey, there is not a single hint of Potemkin villages.

3. The Russian army won the Patriotic War of 1812 thanks to "General Moroz"

In June 1812, a half-million French army led by the greatest commander of the Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Russia. Five months later, retreating and crossing the border river Berezina, only 60-90 thousand French soldiers left the country.

Almost immediately after this, an English cartoon "General Frost Shaves Baby Bonnie" by William Ames appeared in print.

Perhaps partly related to it is the widespread misconception that the weather conditions ensured Russia victory over such a serious adversary. But in reality this is unlikely.

So, according to some participants in the war, for example Denis Davydov, three quarters of Napoleon's army were in complete disarray even before the onset of cold weather. In general, the French general, the Marquis de Chambray, who participated in the Russian campaign, agreed with this assessment. He emphasized that not all parts of the Napoleonic army were disoriented due to the frost, and he was even useful for retreating.

The troops of the French emperor were greatly stretched, supplies were working very badly. In addition, one should not forget about the serious losses of Napoleon in a number of battles of the Russian campaign and several months of the corrupting inaction of the French army after it occupied Moscow.

In fact, severe frosts struck after the French army crossed the Berezina and left Russia, and they could no longer make a serious contribution to the victory of the Russian army.

4. The peoples included in the empire did not know the oppression

There is a fairly widespread misconception that the Russian Empire almost paternalized other peoples when it expanded its vast territory.

Sometimes politics really was A. Kappeler. Russia is a multinational empire. M. 2000 is very flexible and loyal. So, there were no prohibitions on the confession of a national religion, even temple buildings were erected for Muslims, Jews and Buddhists. Part of the local elite joined the Russian high society. But it is hardly possible to call the imperial national policy particularly peaceful.

In a situation where most of the country's population was in the status of serfs - that is, they could be sold, exchanged or donated - it is difficult to imagine that the attitude towards foreigners, and especially towards non-believers, would be much better.

Not all peoples favorably evaluated the entry into the Russian Empire.

A. Kappeler speaks about it. Russia is a multinational empire. M. 2000 numerous anti-government uprisings of the Yakuts, Buryats, Koryaks, Chukchi, Bashkirs, Chuvashes, Mordovians, Udmurts, Mari, Tatars, Belarusians, Ukrainians, Poles, peoples of the Caucasus and others. The local population, for example, took an active part in the uprisings of Stepan Razin and Emelyan Pugachev.

Often the rules of the new administration contradicted the life and way of life of the old population. For example, the authorities could force nomads to agriculture, which they never did. And the punitive measures only ruined the small nations more.

Large-scale resettlements have also taken place. For example, during the conquest of Crimea, local Armenians and Greeks were sent to the Azov province. And during the years of the Caucasian War, a significant part of the Circassians, as well as other Caucasian peoples, were evicted by S. Kh. Hotko. Essays on the history of the Circassians: ethnogenesis, antiquity, the Middle Ages, modern times, modernity. SPb. 2001 to the Ottoman Empire (Turkey) and the Kuban region.

Aliens and gentiles in imperial Russia also did not have equal rights. For example, the story of the Buryat ethnographer Gombozhab Tsybikov, the first foreigner who photographed the Tibetan capital Lhasa, is indicative. At St. Petersburg University he was deprived of Zh. D. Dorzhiev, A. M. Kondratov. Gombozhab Tsybikov. Irkutsk. 1990 scholarships, since only Orthodox Christians were allowed to receive it. However, in many other educational institutions, Tsybikov, being a Buddhist, would not have been able to enter at all.

We should not forget about the underlined anti-Semitism of the tsarist nationality policy. The Pale of Settlement was established for the Jews, which included Novorossiya, Crimea, part of Central and Eastern Ukraine and Bessarabia. Also for them there were restrictions on movement and infringement of rights, bans on wearing national clothes, percentage quotas for admission to educational institutions.

So, the Jews were even reproached for the fact that, having developed in themselves over time immunity to tuberculosis, they spread it among the rest of the population.

The tsarist authorities also blame the Kopansky Ya. M. Chisinau pogrom of 1903: A look after a century. Materials of the international scientific conference. Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Moldova, Institute for Interethnic Studies. Department of History and Culture of the Jews of Moldova. Kishinev. 2004 in indulging in major Jewish pogroms. For example, in Chisinau 1903 and Bialystok 1906.

5. Alexander II made all peasants free

For a long time, serfdom persisted in Russia - a system when a significant part of the population was assigned to the farms (estates) of the nobility, worked on its land and was in fact not free and deprived of rights.

In 1861, its history, which lasted several centuries, ended. But one should not think that after the reform of the then reigning Emperor Alexander II, all the peasants became absolutely free.

The point is that the addiction has, in fact, been replaced with a lifetime loan. According to the reform, the peasants received a plot of land for use so that they could feed themselves. However, it was not given free of charge. The state bought the land of the nobles, for the right to further cultivate which the peasants had to pay huge money at that time - redemption payments.

The ransom was supposed to last 49 years, while in total the peasant had to pay three times the cost of the land - such a kind of loan was obtained.

The peasants paid this pledge for their own freedom for decades, until in 1904 their debts (127 million rubles) were written off by decree of Emperor Nicholas II. In total, several have been adopted in more than 40 years;;;; laws that made it easier for peasants to transition to personal and economic independence.

In legal terms, there was also no instant release. Thus, until 1904, the practice of corporal punishment for tax evasion persisted.

So, in fact, the liberation of the largest group of the empire's population took place much later than the reform of 1861 and the reign of Alexander II.

6. At the beginning of the 20th century, public education and medicine improved significantly in the country

Today, more and more often you can hear that the Russian Empire in the last years of its existence developed at a frantic pace, and the revolutions interrupted this process. In particular, supporters of this view speak of significant successes in the field of public education and medicine.

Thus, for the period from 1908 to 1914, expenditures on the Ministry of Public Education increased more than three times: from 53 million to 161 million 600 thousand rubles. And in comparison with the indicators of 1893 (22 million 400 thousand rubles), this figure has increased almost eight times. Similar processes took place in the field of medicine.

However, these successes were very modest - contrary to the opinion that is gaining popularity today.

The main indicators of literacy then were the ability to read and write. Moreover, not every inhabitant possessed at least the first of these two skills. So, according to the 1897 census, only 27% of the inhabitants of the empire were literate.

For a long time, only the children of officials and nobles could study in gymnasiums and universities in accordance with the so-called "circular about cook's children" in 1887.

The law on compulsory primary education, contrary to popular belief, was not passed in the empire. The 1908 decree, which is erroneously named as such, only allocated funds for the construction of new educational institutions and to help those schools that could not support themselves. At the same time, study in them was free.

Due to the lack of education of the population, "folk" methods of treatment were widespread: drugs, conspiracies, quackery and herbalism. Because of this, the morbidity and mortality from infections was incredibly high.

In terms of mortality from many diseases, Russia ranked first among European countries. For example, measles per 100 thousand inhabitants in Russia killed about 91 people, and in England and Wales - 35, in Austria and Hungary - 29, in Italy - 27, in Holland - 19, in Germany - 14. Such a huge gap was observed and in mortality rates from smallpox, scarlet fever, whooping cough, diphtheria and typhoid fever.

Gradually, of course, the mortality rate decreased. If at the turn of the 1860s – 70s about 38 people per thousand inhabitants died, then by 1913 this figure was already about 28. This was due, among other things, to a gradual improvement in the situation with regard to infectious diseases. Therefore, there has been some progress in the field of public health.

However, infant mortality remained high and did not decline as rapidly. If in the second half of the 19th century, out of 100 newborns, 27 did not live up to one year, then by 1911 there were about 24. This meant that insufficient sanitary and educational measures were taken.

Therefore, it is difficult to talk about any serious progress in the field of mass education and medicine in imperial Russia.

7. Before the First World War, in terms of industrial development, Russia was not inferior to Europe

There is a belief, supported by some historians, that at the beginning of the 20th century, the Russian Empire experienced a surge in industrial development.

In fact, it remained an agrarian country, which is clearly illustrated by the indicators of production and exports. So, Russia was the leader in the supply of agricultural products abroad: grain, wheat, rye, oats.

There were no such serious successes in the industry. In 1910, Russia exported almost half as many goods as Belgium. And in 1913 the volume of industrial production of the empire was 5.3% of the world.

One of the main industrial indicators of that time - the volume of pig iron smelting - was also not high in Russia at that time. In absolute terms, it was nine times lower than in the United States, and per capita - 15 times lower. The situation was similar in the steel industry.

By the beginning of the First World War, Russia took the second place in terms of the length of railways: it was 70 thousand kilometers. The leader - the United States - this figure was equal to 263 thousand kilometers.

So the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway can even be considered an engineering feat of that time.

However, considering the size of the empire's territory, the density of the railway network was very low. In addition, most of the railways were single-track, which made crossings, even over short distances, take an incredible amount of time.

Many highways were completed already in Soviet times. Due to the poor quality of the sleepers, the tracks had to be changed regularly.

The same growth that took place was largely ensured by foreign investments. For example, about 80% of copper production was concentrated in the hands of foreign companies. For example, they also owned significant assets in oil production and refining, mechanical engineering and other areas. At the same time, the external debt of the empire grew rapidly.

8. Workers and peasants before the revolution generally lived well

The other side of the myth-making around the Russian Empire is the spread of opinions that the life of the broadest strata of its population, workers and peasants, was not so hard. However, it is difficult to agree with this statement.

About how the liberation of the peasants from serfdom took place has already been said above. The introduction of local self-government bodies (zemstvos) in 1864 did not greatly simplify their life.

Basically, representatives of the zemstvos were elected from the nobility. Therefore, the peasants, if necessary, had to complain to the landowners about the landowners.

Ivan Solonevich, a supporter of the imperial power, wrote eloquently about the standard of living of the common peasant population in his work "People's Monarchy". He emphasized that in 1912, Russia's lag behind the Western countries is undeniable, and its average inhabitant is seven times poorer than the average American and twice the average Italian.

Poor health care and high infant mortality, which were also discussed above, were the reason for the low life expectancy. She was only 32, 4–34, 5 years old. At the same time, peasant families were far from always provided with even the necessary products.

Children eat worse than the calves of the owner, who has good livestock. The mortality of children is much greater than the mortality of calves, and if the mortality of calves was as great for the owner with good livestock as the mortality of children for the peasant, then it would be impossible to manage. Do we want to compete with the Americans when our children don't even have white bread in their teats? If mothers ate better, if our wheat, which the German eats, remained at home, then the children would grow better, and there would be no such mortality, all these typhus, scarlet fever, diphtheria would not rage. By selling our wheat to a German, we are selling our blood, that is, peasant children.

Alexander Engelhardt Russian writer, publicist and public figure of the 19th century

The living and working conditions of the workers were also far from ideal. According to the law of 1897, the working day in manufactories, factories and factories was limited to 11.5 hours on weekdays and 10 on Saturdays. That is, before it was even larger. For example, it could go up to 14-15 hours a day. True, this was partially smoothed out by rest on all church and royal holidays (up to 38 days).

In fairness, I must say that certain measures were taken to improve the lives of industrial workers. Thus, underage workers were obliged to attend schools at factories, compensation was provided for those injured at work, and compulsory insurance was introduced.

However, working conditions remained difficult. Industrial injuries were high, women and children continued to make up a significant part of workers, and arbitrary fines could be as high as half of the salary.

Do not forget about such an indicator of the standard of living as the spread of prostitution. She was a legalized income in the Russian Empire.

As can be seen from all these data, the situation of a significant part of the population has gradually improved, but it cannot be called remarkable.

9. The Russian Empire fell because of the Bolsheviks

You can often hear that Vladimir Lenin and the Bolshevik Party brought down the Russian monarchy. But this can only be stated out of banal ignorance of facts from the usual school curriculum.

The thing is that Nicholas II and the autocratic system were overthrown by his own entourage during the February Revolution. In February - March 1917, in the wake of a spontaneous uprising in Petrograd, caused by failures in domestic and foreign policy, new authorities were formed: the Petrograd Soviet and the Provisional Government.

Nicholas was given an ultimatum to abdicate the throne, the military headquarters supported him, and the last emperor resigned. The new government failed to create a strong state, and on October 25, 1917, it was overthrown by the Bolsheviks during the October Revolution.

Perhaps some of those who consider the Bolsheviks to be the destroyers of the empire associate this with the murder of the Khrustalev V. M. Romanovs. The last days of a great dynasty. M. 2013 by them of the royal family and the suppression of the royal dynasty. However, by that time, the emperor had no real power for a long time.

And, by the way, not all opponents of Lenin and his party, including those in the Civil War, wanted to revive the monarchy.